Markets Without Money. Exchange Beyond Coins and Contracts

Long before every transaction carried a price, communities moved goods through obligation, reputation, barter, and gifts. These systems did not vanish when coinage spread; they adapted beside taxation, trade, and state authority. Following exchanges from household economies to urban black markets, this account examines how trust, scarcity, law, and social rank shaped value. Readers encounter informal networks not as economic leftovers, but as durable institutions that reveal who could trade, who was excluded, and how ordinary people survived when official markets failed them.